About

The Co-operatives Research Unit (CRU) was based at the Open University, Milton Keynes in the UK. The Open University is one of the best-known distance learning institutions in the world. CRU had nearly 30 years of experience in research, training, consultancy, and publications related to co-operatives, social enterprise, and other organisations in the social economy.

It had three main aims:

  • To encourage and develop thinking and research on issues of importance to the social economy sector;
  • To support the development of co-operatives and other organisations trading for social or ethical purposes;
  • To work with practitioners, policymakers, and researchers at European, national, and local levels to develop comparative analyses of issues for improving policy, development, and management.

Research

Social Enterprise Projects

Roger Spear was involved in a European network for social enterprise, EMES, established in 1996. A subsequent project, funded by the EC under FW4 (1997-1999), was a comparative study of social enterprises in Europe, which led to the publication of the book Social Enterprise in Europe by Defourny and Borzaga in June 2001. This work built on an earlier study, Prospects for Co-operatives in the Social Care Area, funded by the DTI (Small Firms Division) in 1992-93, which resulted in the publication Third Sector Care by Spear, Leonetti, and Thomas, a work that remained in demand. Spear’s network continued its work through projects such as the Perse Project (2001-2004), a 10-country study on the socio-economic performance of social enterprises in work-integration, and the Elexies project (2002-2003) on social integration enterprises in Europe.

Co-operative Projects

The CIRIEC project on co-operative strategies for competing in global contexts involved about 10 countries in an international comparison of experiences in the financial services and agro-food sectors. The results were published in French by CIRIEC International in Liège. Another CIRIEC project, “Third System and Employment,” was a 15-country study funded by the European Commission from 1998 to 2000, which mapped the social economy and analyzed its relation to employment, with results published in 2000.

A research project on the “Co-operative Advantage,” coordinated by CRU with partners from Leicester University Management Centre and the Co-op College, was commissioned by the Society for Co-operative Studies, and the results were published in a special issue of the Journal of Co-operative Studies in 2000.

Rita Rhodes, who completed her Ph.D. with CRU in the 1990s, wrote a book based on her thesis to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the ICA, titled The International Co-operative Alliance During War and Peace 1910-1950. She later published An Arsenal for Labour, an historical study of a major London Co-operative Society, and was working on a study of the Colonial Office’s role in co-operative development in Africa and India.

Roger Spear expanded his international work by participating in international working groups on social co-ops and voluntary organisations. He became Chair of the ICA Research Committee in 1995 and helped organise numerous international conferences in locations such as Estonia, Bologna, Budapest, Cork, Quebec, Oslo, Singapore, Rio de Janeiro, Gavle, Seoul, Buenos Aires, and Thessaloniki between 1996 and 2002.

Consultancy

We relied mainly on external funds to conduct research on co-operatives and other organisations in the social economy.

Our major research areas had included:

  • Analysis of commitment and satisfaction using exchange theory.
  • Studies of economic performance and financial structure.
  • Worker buyouts of failing and bankrupt enterprises.
  • The maintenance and degeneration of internal democracy.
  • Structures and strategies for co-op development.
  • Women and collective working.
  • Historical analysis of co-operative support organisations.
  • Co-operation as a social dynamic.

We relied mainly on external funds to conduct research on co-operatives and other organisations in the social economy. And our recent research areas were:

  • Social enterprises in the UK & Europe.
  • Employee ownership and participation.
  • Management in the social economy.
  • Ethical consumers and markets.
  • Innovative financial instruments and institutions in the social economy.
  • Historical studies of co-operatives

Education and Training

The Open University is probably the best-known distance learning organisation in the world. The work of the research unit had been used in various Open University course materials, including a course for the unemployed. We had also been involved in producing distance learning material for co-operatives and organisations in the social economy. These included three packs — Co-operative Working 1, 2, and 3 — to help people set up their own co-operative and improve its business and social performance. The Meetings Pack was intended to help organisations in the social economy improve the way they ran meetings.

We also undertook face-to-face training on a contract basis, including:

Developing Buyouts and Turnarounds.

Strategic management for technology co-operatives.

Management training for Third World co-operatives.

Strategic Management in the Social Economy.

Publications

Aiken, Mike; Spear, Roger; Lyon, Fergus; Teasdale, Simon; Hazenberg, Richard; Bull, Mike and Kopec Massey, Anna (2021). Social enterprise in the UK: Models and trajectories. In: Defourney, Jacques and Nyssens, Marthe eds. Social Enterprise in Western Europe. Routledge Studies in Social Enterprise & Social Innovation. Routledge, pp. 253–268.

Morales, Andrés; Spear, Roger; Ngoasong, Michael and Sacchetti, Silvia (2019). Buen Vivir as an Innovative Development Model. In: Banerjee, Swati; Carney, Stephen and Hulgard, Lars eds. People-Centered Social Innovation: Global Perspectives on an Emerging Paradigm. New York: Routledge.

Spear, Roger (2019). Collective social entrepreneurship. In: De Bruin, Anne and Teasdale, Simon eds. A research agenda for social entrepreneurship. Elgar Research Agendas. Edward Elgar.

Vickers, Ian; Westall, Andrea; Spear, Roger; Brennan, Geraldine and Syrett, Stephen (2017). Cities, the social economy and inclusive growth: a practice review. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York.

Lundgaard Andersen, Linda; Gawell, Malin and Spear, Roger eds. (2016). Social Entrepreneurship: A Nordic Perspective. Routledge Studies in Social Enterprise and Social Innovation. Abingdon: Routledge.

Spear, Roger and Thomas, Alan (2015). Worker Control in Worker Co-operatives? Journal of Co-operative Studies, 48 No 1(143), pp. 6–19.

Spear, Roger; Paton, Rob and Nicholls, Alex (2015). Public Policy for Social Finance in Context. In: Nicholls, Alex; Paton, Rob and Emerson, Jed eds. Social Finance. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 460–487.

Spear, Roger (2012). Hybridite des co-operatives. In: Blanc, Jérôme and Colongo, Denis eds. Les contributions des coopératives à une économie plurielle. Les cahiers de l’économie sociale. Entreprendre autrement. Paris: L’Harmattan.

Spear, Roger (2012). Innovation and Collective Entrepreneurship. Universitas Forum: International Journal on Human Development and International Cooperation, 3(2).

Spear, Roger (2011). Innovation and collective entrepreneurship. In: FIESS – International Forum on the Social and Solidarity Economy, 17-20 Oct 2011, Montreal.

Spear, Roger (2011). Formes coopératives hybrides. Recma: Revue internationale de l’économie sociale, 320.

Spear, Roger; Galera, Giulia; Noya, Antonella and Clarence, Emma (2010). Improving Social Inclusion at the Local Level Through the Social Economy: Report for Slovenia. OECD Publishing, Paris.

Spear, Roger (2010). Religion and value-driven social entrepreneurship. In: Hockerts, Kai; Mair, Johanna and Robinson, Jeffrey eds. Values and Opportunities in Social Entrepreneurship. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Paton, Rob and Spear, Roger (2010). Civil society and the ‘commanding heights’ the civil economy: past, present, future. The Carnegie UK Trust, Dunfermline.

Cornforth, Chris and Spear, Roger (2010). The governance of hybrid organisations. In: Billis, David ed. Hybrid Organizations and the Third Sector: Challenges for Practice, Theory and Policy. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, pp. 70–89.

Spear, Roger (2010). Social accounting and social audit in the UK. In: Bouchard, Marie ed. The Worth of the Social Economy : An International Perspective. Économie sociale & Économie publique / Social Economy & Public Economy (2). Group Editorial Peter Lang.

Spear, Roger (2010). The social economy in Europe: trends and challenges. In: Mook, Laurie; Quarter, Jack and Ryan, Sherida eds. Researching the Social Economy Matters. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 84–105.

Spear, Roger; Cornforth, Chris and Aiken, Michael (2009). The governance challenges of social enterprises: evidence from a UK empirical study. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 80(2), pp. 247–273.

Spear, Roger (2009). European perspectives on social enterprise. In: Hunter, Paul ed. Social Enterprise for Public Service: How does the Third Sector Deliver? London: The Smith Institute, pp. 38–49.

Spear, Roger (2009). Social entrepreneurship in co-operatives. In: McPherson, Ian and McLaughlin-Jenkins, Erin eds. Integrating Diversities with a Complex Heritage: Essays in the Field of Co-operative Studies. Victoria, Canada: New Rochdale Press.

Spear, Roger; Andersen, Linda Lundgaard and Schott, Thomas (2009). People’s participation in social entrepreneurship in Denmark. In: Schott, Thomas ed. Social and commercial entrepreneurship in Denmark 2009. Syddansk Universitet, pp. 99–110.

Schøtt, Thomas; Spear, Roger and Hulgaard, Lars (2009). Organising social enterprises in Denmark. In: Schøtt, Thomas ed. Social and commercial entrepreneurship in Denmark 2009. Syddansk Universitet, pp. 111–124.

Slater, Rachel; Frederickson, James; Murray, Richard; Yoxon, Mark; Paton, Rob and Spear, Roger (2008). Understanding diversity in community composting: it’s all in the mix. In: Waste 2008 Conference: Waste and Resource Management – A Shared Responsibility, 16-17 Sep 2008, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK.

Spear, Roger (2008). Cogouvernance collective. Partenariats stratégiques locaux au Royaume-Uni.Community co-governance: local strategic partnerships in the UK. In: Enjolras, Bernard ed. Gouvernance et intérêt général dans les services sociaux et de santé. Économie sociale & Économie publique / Social Economy & Public Economy (1). Brussels: Peter Lang Editions, pp. 81–106.

Spear, Roger; Cornforth, Chris and Aiken, Mike (2007). For Love and Money: Governance and Social Enterprise. National Council for Voluntary Organisations, UK.

Cornforth, Chris; Spear, Roger and Aiken, Michael (2007). Governing social enterprise: emerging challenges and needs. In: 36th Annual ARNOVA Conference, 15-17 Nov 2007, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.

Cornforth, Chris; Spear, Roger and Aiken, Michael (2007). Governance and social enterprise. In: CIRIEC Research Conference on the Social Economy, Oct 2007, Victoria, Canada.

Spear, Roger and Hulgard, Lars (2006). Social entrepreneurship and the mobilisation of social capital in European social enterprises. In: Nyssens, Marthe ed. Social Enterprise: At the crossroads of market, public policies and civil society. Routledge studies in the management of voluntary and non-profit organizations. Oxford, UK: Routledge, pp. 85–108.

Spear, Roger (2006). Social entrepreneurship: a different model? International Journal of Social Economics, 33(5/6), pp. 399–410.

Spear, Roger and Bidet, Eric (2005). Social enterprise for work integration in 12 European countries: a descriptive analysis. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 76(2), pp. 195–231.

Spear, Roger (2004). Governance in democratic member-based organisations. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 75(1), pp. 33–60.

Borzaga, C. and Spear, R. eds. (2004). Trends and challenges for co-operatives and social enterprises in developed and transition countries. Trento, Italy: Fondazione Cariplo.

Spear, Roger; Aiken, Michael and Newholm, T. (2003). Success factors in UK retail co-ops. Journal of Co-operative Studies.

Spear, Roger (2002). National Profiles of Work Integration Social Enterprises: United Kingdom. EMES European Research Network.

Spear, Roger (2001). The Dark side of the moon – unilluminated dimensions of systems practice. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 14(6), pp. 779–790.

Spear, Roger; Defourny, Jacques; Favreau, Louis and Laville, Jean-Louis eds. (2001). Tackling social exclusion in Europe: the contribution of the social economy. UK: Ashgate.

Spear, Roger (1999). The rise and fall of employee-owned UK bus companies. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 20(2), pp. 253–268.

Useful Contacts

  • Association for British Credit Unions Limited (ABCUL)
  • ART Business Loans
  • Banking, Insurance and Finance Union
  • Barchester Green Investment
  • BASSAC – see International Federation of Settlements below
  • Birmingham Credit Union Development Agency
  • Birmingham Settlement
  • British Columbia Co-operative Development Program
  • Business in the Community
  • Charities Aid Foundation
  • Christian Ethical Investment Group (CEIG)
  • Community Links
  • The Co-operative information superhighway
  • Co-opNet
  • The Co-operative Bank
  • The Co-operative Party
  • The Co-operative Group (CWS) Limited
  • Corporate Community Involvement (CCI)
  • Developing Strathclyde Ltd – The Glasgow Regeneration Fund
  • Development Trusts Association (DTA)
  • The Ecology Building Society
  • Ethical Consumer Magazine
  • Ethical Investment Research Service (EIRIS)
  • Eurostat
  • The Foundation Center
  • Friends Provident
  • Global Co-operative Movement
  • Industrial Common Ownership Finance Limited (ICOF)
  • Industrial Common Ownership Movement Limited (ICOM)
  • Info Center for Responsible Investment
  • The International Association of Investors in the Social Economy (INAISE)
  • The International Co-operative Alliance
  • ICA Virtual Community
  • International Development Co-operation
  • International Federation of Settlements (IFS)
  • Lancashire Co-op Development Agency
  • Local Investment Fund (LIF)
  • Malcolm Lynch Solicitors
  • Mondragon Corporacion Cooperativa (MCC)
  • National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO)
  • New Economics Foundation
  • Nottinghamshire CDA Ltd
  • Opportunity Trust
  • Out of this World (Creative Consumer Co-op)
  • Partnerships Online
  • Radical Routes
  • School for Social Entrepreneurs
  • Shared Interest
  • The Society for Co-operative Studies
  • The Soil Association
  • Triodos Bank
  • UK Communities Online
  • The UK Co-operative Council
  • UK Social Investment Forum
  • Unity Trust Bank

Team

Roger Spear
Chris Cornforth
Rita Rhodes
Mike Aiken
Angela Walters